“Soot, ash, and toxic chemicals from strikes on fuel depots and a refinery combined with water droplets in the atmosphere and fell back to Earth as an oily, acidic rain that prompted warnings to stay indoors.”

“Debris and contamination from missiles, as well as potential strikes on manufacturing facilities and other infrastructure, also could unleash harmful pollution throughout the region, according to experts.”

“If you hit an ammonia-producing plant for fertiliser or for food production... those release chemicals that are absolutely toxic and harmful if they spread,” said Mohammed Mahmoud, head of Middle East Climate and Water Policy with the United Nations University Institute of Water, Environment and Health, and founder of the Climate and Water Initiative.”

“Continued access to clean water is a big concern”

“Countries in the Persian Gulf region rely on hundreds of desalination plants for drinking water, raising health and security risks if plants are damaged or water is polluted, experts say.”

“People in the region 'struggle with having access to clean drinking water, even at peace times,' noted Madani, the Iranian scientist and UN official. 'Any damage to water infrastructure can have long-lasting impacts.'”

“Iran has said a US airstrike damaged one of its desalination plants, while neighbouring Bahrain accused Iran of damaging one of its plants. Experts fear more could be targeted the longer the war goes on.”

“Addressing environmental damage could take decades”

“After the war, as Iran and other countries rebuild, environmental damage could be a low priority, experts say.”

“The focus will be on energy and water infrastructure, manufacturing plants, and food production facilities, according to Mahmoud. Some pollution, especially to the gulf or other waterways, 'I doubt will be addressed soon, and in some cases, not at all.'”

“In densely populated Tehran, for example, a huge number of strikes have hit not just oil infrastructure, but also buildings and residential areas, generating harmful contamination from pulverised building materials.”